Wednesday, November 27, 2019

Free Essays on Nagarjuna

NAGARJUNA Nagarjuna lived in the first to second century C.E. He was born into a brahmin family of Vidarbha (Beda) in South India. At his birth, astrologers foretold that he would die at a very tender age but that his life span could be extended for a maximum of seven years by making consecrated offerings to monastics (life in Buddah, page 344). Nagarjuna’s devout parents thus succeeded in lengthening the boy’s life span to the age of seven. But at that point, they were told that no amount of rituals could further prevent his death. Unable to bear the pain of watching their beloved son’s premature death, they sent him forth traveling with a trusted servant (life in Buddha page 413). On his travels in South India, the boy had a vision of the transcendental Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, who guided him to the gates of the famous monastic university of Nà ¢landà ¢. There, the renowned adept Saraha (also known as Rà ¢hulabhadra) learned of his story and recommended reciting the mantra of Buddha Amità ¢yus (â€Å"Long Life†) to extend his life span (total zen, page 27). On his eighth birthday, Saraha initiated the boy into the practice (sà ¢dhana) of Amità ¢yus, and thus he was the spared the fate predicted by the astrologers. Nagarjuna or Siddhipà ¢da, as the boy was known then, studied and practice vigorously and soon, under the protectorship of Buddha Manjushri, excelled in all branches of Buddhist learning. Later he was appointed as the abbot of Nà ¢landà ¢(life in Buddah, page 678). According to one legend, Siddhipà ¢da acquired the name Nagarjuna as follows. One day, a yogin who had been angered by monks of Vikramashà ®la, another famous Buddhist university of ancient India, set the monastery complex on fire by magical means. The smoke from the fire caused Mucilinda, the ruler of the serpent race, to fall seriously ill(life in buddah, page 680). The call went out for the land’s most knowledgeable healer to intervene, and Siddhip... Free Essays on Nagarjuna Free Essays on Nagarjuna NAGARJUNA Nagarjuna lived in the first to second century C.E. He was born into a brahmin family of Vidarbha (Beda) in South India. At his birth, astrologers foretold that he would die at a very tender age but that his life span could be extended for a maximum of seven years by making consecrated offerings to monastics (life in Buddah, page 344). Nagarjuna’s devout parents thus succeeded in lengthening the boy’s life span to the age of seven. But at that point, they were told that no amount of rituals could further prevent his death. Unable to bear the pain of watching their beloved son’s premature death, they sent him forth traveling with a trusted servant (life in Buddha page 413). On his travels in South India, the boy had a vision of the transcendental Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, who guided him to the gates of the famous monastic university of Nà ¢landà ¢. There, the renowned adept Saraha (also known as Rà ¢hulabhadra) learned of his story and recommended reciting the mantra of Buddha Amità ¢yus (â€Å"Long Life†) to extend his life span (total zen, page 27). On his eighth birthday, Saraha initiated the boy into the practice (sà ¢dhana) of Amità ¢yus, and thus he was the spared the fate predicted by the astrologers. Nagarjuna or Siddhipà ¢da, as the boy was known then, studied and practice vigorously and soon, under the protectorship of Buddha Manjushri, excelled in all branches of Buddhist learning. Later he was appointed as the abbot of Nà ¢landà ¢(life in Buddah, page 678). According to one legend, Siddhipà ¢da acquired the name Nagarjuna as follows. One day, a yogin who had been angered by monks of Vikramashà ®la, another famous Buddhist university of ancient India, set the monastery complex on fire by magical means. The smoke from the fire caused Mucilinda, the ruler of the serpent race, to fall seriously ill(life in buddah, page 680). The call went out for the land’s most knowledgeable healer to intervene, and Siddhip...

Saturday, November 23, 2019

Budgets essays

Budgets essays The U.S. House of Representatives passed an amendment granting the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) a ten million dollar budget increase for 2003 (NEA Newsroom 2003a). The funding hike is earmarked for the agency's Challenge America initiative, which is designed to make the arts more widely available in underserved communities across the country. National Endowment for the Arts Chairman Dana Gioia states: We welcome this much-needed, positive development. This vote of confidence in the NEA comes just as state, local, and organizational arts budgets across the country are being slashed. These funds will greatly enhance our ability to deliver the finest arts and arts education programs to all regions of the country. All Americans should be encouraged that the House recognized this as a worthy investment that will pay significant cultural and even economic dividends to communities across the country. (NEA Newsroom 2003a) The U.S. Senate is expected to take up its version of the funding The bipartisan amendment provides an increase of ten million dollars for the Arts Endowment, in addition to President George W. Bush's FY 2004 budget request of $117.480 million. The agency's FY 2003 funding is $115.731 million. The Slaughter-Shays-Dicks-Leach amendment was sponsored by Representatives Louise Slaughter (D-NY) and Chris Shays (R-CT), co- chairs of the Congressional Arts Caucus, and Norm Dicks (D-WA), Ranking Minority Member on the Interior Appropriations Subcommittee and Jim Leach Members of the House-Senate conference committee who've been negotiating the 2004 Interior Appropriations bill now agree to increase the budget of the National Endowment for the Arts by nearly seven million dollars. This raises the budget for the nation's leading annual fund...

Thursday, November 21, 2019

American Gothic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

American Gothic - Essay Example American Gothic is a highly expressive painting which captures the spirit of an age. Depicting a Midwestern farmer and his daughter, the dour expressions of the faces of both father and daughter, their highly modest clothing and the conservatism which they exude, communicate the hardship of the times. Whether from the modesty of their clothing, the utter dourness of their expression or the plainness of the house in the background, the picture tells the story of an age. It is an age where people lived by their own labor and had to work long hours, leaving hardly any room for pleasurable pursuits, just to survive and make ends meet. Certainly, the picture does not tell a tale of poverty but it tells one of a life of work with no pleasure in order to satisfy the basic requirements of livelihood, decent clothing and shelter. The painting further provides readers with an understanding of male-female relations and roles during the age in question. In this picture, the farmer is pictured holding a large pitchfork and dominates the painting. His daughter is standing just behind him and while he is looking straight ahead, gazing at onlookers, her eyes are averted. The pitchfork is a symbol of the manual labor for which men were responsible and the fact that the daughter is standing behind the father is indicative of the subservient status of females. Added to that, the fact that the man is looking straight ahead and the daughter’s eyes are averted could be interpreted as evidencing the public role of men versus the private role of females. It is, thus, that the male figure is boldly looking at the painter and, hence, directly at us while the female figure is not.

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Child and Elder Abuse Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Child and Elder Abuse - Case Study Example f-blame, nightmares, flashbacks, sleeplessness, fear of matters related to the abuse (comprising of objects, places, smells, and doctor's visits among others.). The effects of child sexual abuse also include self-esteem issues, chronic pain, sexual dysfunction, addiction, self-injury, suicidal ideation, depression, somatic complaints, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (Hoyano & Keenan, 2007). Elder Abuse Case Norman (77) lives at home with his wife in addition to his two sons, who are 47 and 46. Both sons are jobless and not concerned in seeking a job. The man has been beaten numerous occasions by his sons. "At times, I think, ‘Why does it occur to me?’" were Norman’s exact words. Norman was recorded at a police station. The man talked to a Chicago Police Department (CPD) superior services spokesperson (Yahnke, 2012). The spokesperson provided background information via commentary. Norman was, after his statements at the police station, assisted to recove r from a whipping at the hands of his own sons in 2012. He did not sign a complaint since he dreaded a more ruthless beating. He told the officers that, at the moment he enters the house, he is done flatly. The senior police spokesperson said that the initial time she came across Norman was in the emergency room (ER) of the hospital (Yahnke, 2012). Norman was battered by his son since he used his son’s towel to wipe himself. Stitch ups were needed to seal the wound (Twentyman & Plotkin, 2010). Norman says that he always considers that things one day might get better, but the a hospital counselor informed him that such acts go one for as long as it takes. Norman’s sons use his Social Security, as well as pension income, and the father has to work part-time just to have his own money for petty use. The... Â  Norman (77) lives at home with his wife in addition to his two sons, who are 47 and 46. Both sons are jobless and not concerned in seeking a job. The man has been beaten numerous occasions by his sons. "At times, I think, ‘Why does it occur to me?’" were Norman’s exact words. Norman was recorded at a police station. The man talked to a Chicago Police Department (CPD) superior services spokesperson (Yahnke, 2012). The spokesperson provided background information via commentary. Norman was, after his statements at the police station, assisted to recover from a whipping at the hands of his own sons in 2012. He did not sign a complaint since he dreaded a more ruthless beating. He told the officers that, at the moment he enters the house, he is done flatly. The senior police spokesperson said that the initial time she came across Norman was in the emergency room (ER) of the hospital (Yahnke, 2012). Norman was battered by his son since he used his son’s towel to wipe himself. Stitch ups were needed to seal the wound (Twentyman & Plotkin, 2010). Norman says that he always considers that things one day might get better, but the hospital counselor informed him that such acts go one for as long as it takes. Norman’s sons use his Social Security, as well as pension income, and the father has to work part-time just to have his own money for petty use. The counselor confirms that Norman finally decided to pressed charges. A court hearing date was finally set, and his two sons posted bond. Â  

Sunday, November 17, 2019

The Development of Illusion and Reality in Tithe Essay Example for Free

The Development of Illusion and Reality in Tithe Essay Opponents have historically overlooked the primary reasons for it’s against to plastic surgery. It promotes a continuing descent into all things vain. Rather than accepting their perceived flaws, growing, and developing character, they take a chance going under the knife. Plastic surgery rarely produces the desired results and creates unhealthier obsession with things that would be relatively trivial in a mentally healthy person with proper priorities and emotional disorders. Even if, by some miracle, someone is completely happy with their surgery, it only serves to perpetuate the cycle; for themselves and for others. The obsession doesnt go away in these people. Their thinking inevitably moves on to having more things done. The plastic surgery craze is insidious because it targets those who are obsessed with their outer appearance, not whats important. Furthermore, the demand for cosmetic plastic surgery increases despite the increasing cost, in contrast to other traditional goods for which demand typically declines as price increases. Cosmetic plastic surgery has moved beyond the stage of being an exclusive privilege of the rich and famous. Nevertheless, cosmetic plastic surgery is one of the medical specialties exposed to a substantially high risk of malpractice claims. Most malpractice claims in cosmetic plastic surgery are not consequences of technical faults but because of inadequate patient selection criteria and lack of adequate communication between patient and surgeon. Proven efficient training, careful utilization of computer imaging techniques in association with the adoption of simple precautions and guidelines and adequate communication along with a completed patients consent form are important essentials in case of medical litigation. .Mental and emotional stability are increasingly taking a backseat to physical appearance. People just dont realize what theyre doing to themselves because they have never really valued anything other than physical appearance in the first place. The fact that these things arent obvious to more people truly shows where our culture is heading. Just think about this question: Is the freedom to do whatever we want with our lives a valuable passport even to overpass the limits of morals and ethics. People generally arent against plastic surgery. Theyre against people who look perfectly fine getting their face cut up because they want to look like their favorite celebrity. Opposition A new survey shows that more than half (51%) of all Americans regardless of income approve of cosmetic plastic surgery, this is a 3% increase from 2009. According to the February 2011 report, 52% of respondents with an income of under $25K approve of cosmetic surgery (48% of respondents with an income between $25K-$50K approve, 45% of respondents with an income between $50K-$75K approve, and 56% of respondents with an income above $75K approve) and 29% of the respondents who earn under $25K would consider cosmetic surgery for themselves. â€Å"As the numbers suggest people in every income bracket, single or married, male or female, view plastic surgery as a reasonable option today,† said Felmont F. Eaves III, MD, President of The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ASAPS). â€Å"Taking care of yourself and paying attention to physical appearance is increasingly important to everyone. As both traditional surgical procedures have been improved and refined, and new nonsurgical options have become available, aesthetic plastic surgeons have more to offer to our patients. † Other key findings of the study include:53% of women and 49% of men say they approve of cosmetic surgery. 67% of Americans would not be embarrassed if their friends and family knew they had cosmetic surgery. 27% of married Americans and 33% of unmarried Americans would consider cosmetic surgery for themselves, now or in the future. 67% of white Americans and 72% of non-white Americans say they would not be embarrassed about having cosmetic surgery. Most Americans (71%) said their attitude toward cosmetic surgery had not changed in the last five years, though 20% said it was ‘more favorable. ‘Out of all age groups, men and women between the ages of 18 and 24 are the most likely to consider plastic surgery for themselves now or in the future (37%). 77% of Americans 65 or older say they would not be embarrassed abouthaving cosmetic surgery. The study was commissioned by the American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ASAPS) and conducted by the independent research firm innovate. According to 2010 ASAPS Cosmetic Surgery Statistics, almost 9. 5 million cosmetic surgical and nonsurgical procedures were performed in the United States last year. Women had nearly 8. 6 million cosmetic procedures (92 percent of total) and men had more than 750,000 procedures (8 percent of total). Overall, the number of surgical procedures increased by almost 9 percent and nonsurgical cosmetic procedures decreased 9 percent from 2010 to access the complete 2010 ASAPS Statistics. A 2004 study published in the official medical journal of the ASPS, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery found that deaths occurring at office-based surgery facilities are rareless than 1/4 percent. More than 400,000 operative procedures in accredited office-based outpatient surgery centers were studied from 2000-2002. Serious complications were infrequent, occurring 1 in 298 cases or 0. 34 percent with death occurring 1 in 51,459 cases or 0. 0019 percent, which is comparable to the overall risk of such procedures performed in hospital surgery facilities, this publication makes me think about my life or my beauty Well, someone has to defend cosmetic plastic surgery, says Rachel Weisz, Hollywood beauty. There are several reasons why she is in approve of cosmetic plastic surgery, that extend beyond her own vested interest of making a living. She also asks,† Where do you draw the line between acceptable vanity and unacceptable vanity? You shower, bathe and get regular haircuts. You color your hair to be lighter, darker, more dramatic, or to hide the grays. You spend large amounts of money on skin care products and eye creams. You wear cosmetics, buy and wear flattering clothing , pay a fortune for your kids to have straight teeth . Why are these things acceptable but cosmetic surgery, which actually works, is not? Do you know that the entire skin care industry is lying to you? Over-the-counter skin care products don’t work. At best, they don’t work that well. Regardless of how expensive they are, your face will still sag and wrinkle. Women spend an average of $24,000 over their lifetimes fighting wrinkles, and yet, the wrinkles keep coming. † She basically want to covey that she is in approve of cosmetic surgery because is cheaper than using creams or products, she believe in vanity, plus being perfect is the main character in her life. Refutation I have fact about how cans harmful cosmetic surgeries are. October, 2000. A new study suggests that a few patients who seek facial plastic surgery have a personality disorder. Surgery may benefit some of these patients, but others remain discontented and may seek legal recourse from their surgeon. A persons self-image plays a key role in the development of personality. Young men and women with a subjective negative impression of their self-image develop defense mechanisms to cope with low esteem. Later in life, they may request cosmetic surgery to normalize a perceived abnormal appearance. These patients may, in fact, not need cosmetic surgery to address patterns of behavior found in certain personality types. Following surgery, conflict may arise between patient and surgeon. The researchers contend that facial plastic surgeons may encounter this problem. Their study attempts to describe the personality disorders of patients seeking facial plastic surgery to allow the specialist to make an informed decision to treat, or not to treat. The research was carried out by a team led by Henri Gaboriau MD, from the Department of OtolaryngologyHead and Neck Surgery, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, and H. Devon Graham III MD, from the Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation, New Orleans, LA. The findings were presented on April 28,1999 at a meeting of the American Academy of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. The Bible does not specifically address a Christian having plastic surgery or cosmetic surgery. There is nothing in the Bible to indicate that plastic surgery is, in and of itself, wrong. However, there are several things that one needs to consider before deciding whether or not to undergo these procedures. Altering ones body is unnatural, and there are always risks of potential side effects, both physical and psychological. No one should allow himself to be put â€Å"under the knife† without first thoroughly researching all alternatives, risks, and side effects involved with the surgery. A person also needs to fully identify his or her motivation for desiring the surgery. For many with physical deformities; whether genetic or acquired, it is natural to want to fit into society and feel â€Å"normal. † There are also cases of slight abnormalities that would cause someone to feel very uncomfortable with himself, such as a very large or misshapen nose. But many, if not most, plastic surgeries are attempts to meet emotional voids in physical ways, to attract attention, or to seek approval from others. The most important thing to do before making the decision to undergo plastic surgery would be to consult God about the issue. The Bible tells us that God cares about every worry and concern that we have, so we should take our problems to Him (1 Peter 5:7). Through the wisdom and guidance of the Holy Spirit and the Word of God, we have the ability to make decisions that will please and honor Him. â€Å"Charm is deceptive, and beauty is fleeting; but a woman who fears the LORD is to be praised† (Proverbs 31:30). Even the most skilled surgeon cannot hold back the hands of time, and all cosmetic surgeries will eventually have the same result—aging. Those lifted body parts will sag again, and those cosmetically altered facial features will eventually wrinkle. It is far better to work on beautifying the person underneath, â€Å"that of your inner self, the unfading beauty of a gentle and quiet spirit, which is of great worth in Gods sight† (1 Peter 3:4). Conclusion I am against plastic surgery because it is generally unnecessary surgery which comes with very serious risks. Our society places great importance in appearance, which leads to unrealistic standards that young girls and women. Plastic surgery only strengthens these insane standards and weakens the self-esteem of girls and women who do not feel as though they measure up. Learn to love the body you have. And more people want surgery, but we are not becoming uglier as a race, we are just adjusting our notion of what is beautiful and what is not. All of us are the product of billions of years of evolution and sexual selection; we are the direct descendants of 100s of millions of others who have been found sexually attractive by someone else, we cant be that ugly. As wonderful as this piece of modern medical technology may sound, cosmetic surgery is not all that advantageous and in most of all cases, it is not needed. There is no point in transforming a healthy body. That is why the idea of the perfect body image has to be forgotten, and it has to be recognized that everyone is a special human being. Sources Laurie J. Fundukian, Richard H. Camer Blepharoplasty. . The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. Ed.. 4th ed. Detroit: Gale, 2011. 6 vols. Print Kimberly,HenryA. ,andPennyHeckaman. â€Å"The-Plastic-Surgery-Sourcebook† Lincolnwood: NTC/ Contemporary Publishing, 1999. Print Liz Jones †If face creams really beat ageing, I wouldnt have had a facelift† 25 July 2011http://www. dailymail. co. uk. Newswire Association LLC â€Å"Plastic Surgery Complications and Deaths are Rare, Despite Highly Publicized Death of Donda West† US Newswire. Nov. 14, 2007 pNA. http://www. plasticsurgery. org National Review â€Å"Survey Shows That More Than Half of Americans Approve of Cosmetic Plastic Surgery† New York, NY ,April 4, 2011 www. surgery. org http://www. washingtonpost. com/wp-dyn/articles/A63931-2004Oct26. html http://www. prweb. com/releases/2013/3/prweb10557201. htm http://www. deseretnews. com/article/865575486/Teens-turn-to-plastic-surgery-experts-tackle-the-when-and-why. html? pg=all.

Friday, November 15, 2019

The Biography of Bob Marley Essay example -- Bob Marley Music Biograph

"I love the development of our music, that's what I really dig about the whole thing. How we've tried to develop, y'know? It grows. That's why every day people come forward with new songs. Music goes on forever." --Bob Marley, August 1979 We remember the brilliant and evocative music Bob Marley gave the world; music that stretches back over nearly two decades and still remains timeless and universal. Marley has been called "the first Third World superstar," "Rasta Prophet," "visionary," and" "revolutionary artist." These accolades were not mere hyperbole. Marley was one of the most charismatic and challenging performers of our time. Bob Marley's career stretched back over twenty years. During that time Marley's growing style encompassed every aspect in the rise of Jamaican music, from ska to contemporary reggae. That growth was well reflected in the maturity of the Wailers' music. Bob's first recording attempts came at the beginning of the Sixties. His first two tunes, cut as a solo artist, meant nothing in commercial terms and it wasn't until 1964, as a founding member of a group called the Wailing Wailers, that Bob first hit the Jamaican charts. The record was "Simmer Down," and over the next few years the Wailing Wailers -- Bob, Peter Mclntosh and Bunny Livingston, the nucleus of the group -- put out some 30 sides that properly established them as one of the hottest groups in Jamaica. Mclntosh later shortened his surname to Tosh while Livingston is now called Bunny Wailer. Despite their popularity, the economics of keeping the group together proved too much and the two other members, Junior Braithwaite and Beverley Kelso, left the group. At the same time Bob joined his mother in the United States. This marked the en... ...der for the following winter. At the end of the European tour, Bob Marley & The Wailers went to America. Bob played two shows at Madison Square Garden but, immediately afterwards he was seriously ill. Cancer was diagnosed. Marley fought the disease for eight months. The battle, however, proved to be too much. He died in a Miami Hospital on May 11,1981. A month before the end Bob was awarded Jamaica's Order of Merit, the nations' third highest honor, in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the country's culture. On Thursday, May 23,1981, the Honorable Robert Nesta Marley was given an official funeral by the people of Jamaica. Following the funeral -- attended by both the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition -- Bob's body was taken to his birthplace where it now rests in a mausoleum. Bob Marley was 36 years old. His legend lives on.

Tuesday, November 12, 2019

Ethical Decision Making and Behavior

7 Ethical Decision Making and Behavior As we practice resolving dilemmas we find ethics to be less a goal than a pathway, less a destination than a trip, less an inoculation than a process. —Ethicist Rushworth Kidder WHAT’S AHEAD This chapter surveys the components of ethical behavior—moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character—and introduces systematic approaches to ethical problem solving. We’ll take a look at four decision-making formats: Kidder’s ethical checkpoints, the SAD formula, Nash’s 12 questions, and the case study method.After presenting each approach, I’ll discuss its relative advantages and disadvantages. U nderstanding how we make and follow through on ethical decisions is the first step to making better choices; taking a systematic approach is the second. We’ll explore both of these steps in this chapter. After examining the ethical decision-making process, we’ll see ho w guidelines or formats can guide our ethical deliberations. 235 236——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Components of Moral Action There are a number of models of ethical decision making and action.For example, business ethics educators Charles Powers and David Vogel identify six factors or elements that underlie moral reasoning and behavior and that are particularly relevant in organizational settings. 1 The first is moral imagination, the recognition that even routine choices and relationships have an ethical dimension. The second is moral identification and ordering, which, as the name suggests, refers to the ability to identify important issues, determine priorities, and sort out competing values.The third factor is moral evaluation, or using analytical skills to evaluate options. The fourth element is tolerating moral disagreement and ambiguity, which arises when managers disagree about values and courses of action. The fifth is the ability to integrate m anagerial competence with moral competence. This integration involves anticipating possible ethical dilemmas, leading others in ethical decision making, and making sure any decision becomes part of an organization’s systems and procedures.The sixth and final element is a sense of moral obligation, which serves as a motivating force to engage in moral judgment and to implement decisions. James Rest of the University of Minnesota developed what may be the most widely used model of moral behavior. Rest built his four-component model by working backward. He started with the end product—moral action—and then determined the steps that produce such behavior. He concluded that ethical action is the result of four psychological subprocesses: (1) moral sensitivity (recognition), (2) moral judgment, (3) moral focus (motivation), and (4) moral character. Component 1: Moral Sensitivity (Recognition) Moral sensitivity (recognizing the presence of an ethical issue) is the firs t step in ethical decision making because we can’t solve a moral problem unless we first know that one exists. A great many moral failures stem from ethical insensitivity. The safety committee at Ford Motor decided not to fix the defective gas tank on the Pinto automobile (see Chapter 2) because members saw no problem with saving money rather than human lives.Wal-Mart was slow to respond to concerns raised by employees, labor groups, environmentalists, and others about wage violations, sexual discrimination, poor environmental practices, and other issues. 3 Many students, focused on finishing their degrees, see no problem with cheating. (You can test your ethical sensitivity by completing the â€Å"Self-Assessment: Moral Sensitivity Scenarios. †) According to Rest, problem recognition requires that we consider how our behavior affects others, identify possible courses of action, and determine theCHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——237 consequ ences of each potential strategy. Empathy and perspective skills are essential to this component of moral action. If we understand how others might feel or react, we are more sensitive to potential negative effects of our choices and can better predict the likely outcomes of each option. A number of factors prevent us from recognizing ethical issues. We may not factor ethical considerations into our typical ways of thinking or mental models. We may be reluctant to use moral terminology (values, justice, right, wrong) to describe our decisions because we want to avoid controversy or believe that keeping silent will make us appear strong and capable. 5 We may even deceive ourselves into thinking that we are acting morally when we are clearly not, a process called ethical fading. The moral aspects of a decision fade into the background if we use euphemisms to disguise unethical behavior, numb our consciences through repeated misbehavior, blame others, and claim that only we know the â €Å"truth. 6 Fortunately, we can take steps to enhance our ethical sensitivity (and the sensitivity of our fellow leaders and followers) by doing the following: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Active listening and role playing Imagining other perspectives Stepping back from a situation to determine whether it has moral implications Using moral terminology to discuss problems and issues Avoiding euphemisms Refusing to excuse misbehavior Accepting personal responsibility Practicing humility and openness to other points of viewIn addition to these steps, we can also increase ethical sensitivity by making an issue more salient. The greater the moral intensity of an issue, the more likely it is that decision makers will take note of it and respond ethically. 7 We can build moral intensity by doing the following: †¢ Illustrating that the situation can cause significant harm or benefit to many people (magnitude of consequences) †¢ Establishing tha t there is social consensus or agreement that a behavior is moral or immoral (e. g. legal or illegal, approved or forbidden by a professional association) †¢ Demonstrating probability of effect, that the act will happen and will cause harm or benefit †¢ Showing that the consequences will happen soon (temporal immediacy) †¢ Emphasizing social, psychological, physical, or psychological closeness (proximity) with those affected by our actions †¢ Proving that one person or a group will greatly suffer due to a decision (concentration of effect) 238——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Finally, paying attention to our emotions can be an important clue that we are faced with an ethical dilemma.Moral emotions are part of our makeup as humans. 8 These feelings are triggered even when we do not have a personal stake in an event. For example, we may feel angry when reading about mistreatment of migrant workers or sympathy when we see a picture of a refu gee living in a squalid camp. Moral emotions also encourage us to take action that benefits other people and society as a whole. We might write a letter protesting the poor working conditions of migrant laborers, for instance, or send money to a humanitarian organization working with displaced persons. Anger, disgust, and contempt are other-condemning emotions.They are elicited by unfairness, betrayal, immorality, cruelty, poor performance, and status differences. Anger can motivate us to redress injustices like racism, oppression, and poverty. Disgust encourages us to set up rewards and punishments to deter inappropriate behaviors. Contempt generally causes us to step back from others. Shame, embarrassment, and guilt are self-conscious emotions that encourage us to obey the rules and uphold the social order. These feelings are triggered when we violate norms and social conventions, present the wrong image to others, and fail to live up to moral guidelines.Shame and embarrassment ca n keep us from engaging in further damaging behavior and may drive us to withdraw from social contact. Guilt motivates us to help others and to treat them well. Sympathy and compassion are other-suffering emotions. They are elicited when we perceive suffering or sorrow in our fellow human beings. Such feelings encourage us to comfort, help, and alleviate the pain of others. Gratitude, awe, and elevation are other-praising (positive) emotions that open us up to new opportunities and relationships.They are prompted when someone has done something on our behalf, when we run across moral beauty (acts of charity, loyalty, and self-sacrifice, for example), and when we read or hear about moral exemplars (see Chapter 3). Gratitude motivates us to repay others; awe and elevation encourage us to become better persons and to take steps to help others. In sum, if we experience anger, disgust, guilt, sympathy, or other moral emotions, the chances are good that there is an ethical dimension to th e situation that confronts us. We will need to look further to determine if this is indeed the case.CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——239 SELF-ASSESSMENT MORAL SENSITIVITY SCENARIOS Instructions Read each vignette and consider the following statement: There are very important ethical aspects to this situation. (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) Then briefly explain your rating for each vignette in the space below it. For more information on the ethical issues raised by the scenarios, see Item 1 under â€Å"For Further Exploration, Challenge, and Self-Assessment. † Vignette 1 One of your most important customers, a medical clinic, called yesterday.The clinic had ordered a product 10 days ago (products are normally delivered within 7–10 days), but it had not arrived. Quickly, you traced the order to the shipping office. You asked the shipping clerk about the order, and she said, â€Å"I shipped it 2 days ago! † As you left the shipping office, you glanced at her desk and saw her shipping receipts. You could clearly see that the order was shipped this morning. You called the client back with the news that the product was on its way. As you talked with the client, you learned that the delay of the product had allowed the condition of some patients to worsen quite dramatically. ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Vignette 2 Last Monday, you were sitting at your desk examining a request that a customer had just faxed to you. The customer was proposing a project that would make a tremendous amount of money for your company but had an extremely demanding time schedule.Just as you were about to call the custo mer and accept the project, one of your employees, Phil, knocked on the door. He entered your office, politely placed a letter of resignation on your desk, and told you he was sorry, but in two weeks, he 240——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies would be moving to another state to be closer to his ailing parents. After he left, you thought about the proposed project and determined that even though Phil would be gone, you could still meet all of the customer’s deadlines. You called the customer and accepted the project. ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Vignette 3 Earlier today, a salesman who works in Iowa called you and told you about an experience he had last week. One of his customers placed a small order of about $1,500 worth of product from corporate headquarters.The home office immediately shipped the package through a freight company, and it arrived the next day at the freight company’s warehouse in Iowa. The salesman went to the warehouse just as it was closing and talked to one of the managers. The manager said that everyone had gone home for the day, but he assured him that the package would be delivered directly to his office the next day. The salesman knew that the customer did not need the materials for at least another 3 days, but he didn’t want to wait.He placed a $20 bill on the counter and asked the warehouse manager one last time if there was anything he could do. The manager found the paperwork, got the product from the back of the warehouse, and brought it out to the salesman. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________SOURCE: Reynolds, S. J. (2006). Moral awareness and ethical predispositions: Investigating the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 233–243. Published by the American Psychological Association. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——241 Component 2: Moral Judgment Once an ethical problem is identified, decision makers select a course of action from the options generated in Component 1. In other words, they make judgments about what is the right or wrong thing to do in this situation.Moral judgment has generated more research than the other components of Rest’s model. Investigators have been particularly interested in cognitive moral development, the process by wh ich people develop their moral reasoning abilities over time. Harvard psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg argued that individuals progress through a series of moral stages just as they do physical ones. 9 Each stage is more advanced than the one before. Not only do people engage in more complex reasoning as they progress up the stages, but they also become less self-centered and develop broader definitions of morality.Kohlberg identified three levels of moral development, each divided into two stages. Level I, preconventional thinking, is the most primitive and focuses on consequences. This form of moral reasoning is common among children who choose to obey to avoid punishment (Stage 1) or follow the rules in order to meet their interests (Stage 2). Stage 2 thinkers are interested in getting a fair deal: You help me, and I’ll help you. Conventional thinkers (Level II) look to others for guidance when deciding how to act.Stage 3 people want to live up to the expectations of those t hey respect, such as parents, siblings, and friends, and value concern for others and respect. Stage 4 individuals take a somewhat broader perspective, looking to society as a whole for direction. They believe in following rules at work, for example, and the law. Kohlberg found that most adults are Level II thinkers. Level III, postconceptual or principled reasoning, is the most advanced type of ethical thinking. Stage 5 people are guided by utilitarian principles.They are concerned for the needs of the entire group and want to make sure that rules and laws serve the greatest good for the greatest number. Stage 6 people operate according to internalized, universal principles such as justice, equality, and human dignity. These principles consistently guide their behavior and take precedence over the laws of any particular society. According to Kohlberg, fewer than 20% of American adults ever reach Stage 5, and almost no one reaches Stage 6. Critics take issue with both the philosophi cal foundation of Kohlberg’s model and its reliance on concrete stages of moral development. 0 They contend that Kohlberg based his postconventional stage on Rawls’s justice-asfairness theory and made deontological ethics superior to other ethical approaches. They note that the model applies more to societal issues than to individual ethical decisions. A great many psychologists challenge the notion 242——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies that people go through a rigid or â€Å"hard† series of moral stages, leaving one stage completely behind before moving to the next. They argue instead that a person can engage in many ways of thinking about a problem, regardless of age.Rest (who studied under Kohlberg), Darcia Narvaez, and their colleagues responded to the critics by replacing the hard stages with a staircase of developmental schemas. 11 Schemas are networks of knowledge organized around life events. We use schemas when encountering new s ituations or information. You are able to master information in new classes, for instance, by using strategies you developed in previous courses. According to this â€Å"neoKohlbergian† approach, decision makers develop more sophisticated moral schemas as they develop. The least sophisticated schema is based on personal interest.People at this level are concerned only with what they may gain or lose in an ethical dilemma. No consideration is given to the needs of broader society. Those who reason at the next level, the maintaining norms schema, believe they have a moral obligation to maintain social order. They are concerned with following rules and laws and making sure that regulations apply to everyone. These thinkers believe that there is a clear hierarchy with carefully defined roles (e. g. , bosses–subordinates, teachers–students, officers– enlisted personnel).The postconventional schema is the most advanced level of moral reasoning. Thinking at this level is not limited to one ethical approach, as Kohlberg argued, but encompasses many different philosophical traditions. Postconventional individuals believe that moral obligations are to be based on shared ideals, should not favor some people at the expense of others, and are open to scrutiny (testing and examination). Such thinkers reason like moral philosophers, looking behind societal norms to determine whether they serve moral purposes. Refer to â€Å"Leadership Ethics at the Movies: Michael Clayton† for an example of a leader who shifts to a higher level of moral reasoning. ) Rest developed the Defining Issues Test (DIT) to measure moral development. Subjects taking the DIT (and its successor, the DIT-2) respond to six ethical scenarios and then choose statements that best reflect the reasoning they used to come up with their choices. These statements, which correspond to the three levels of moral reasoning, are then scored. In the best-known dilemma, Heinz’s wife is dying of cancer and needs a drug he cannot afford to buy.He must decide whether to steal the drug to save her life. Hundreds of studies using the DIT reveal that moral reasoning generally increases with age and education. 12 Undergraduate and graduate students benefit from their educational experiences in general and ethical coursework in particular. When education stops, moral development stops. In addition, moral development is a universal concept, crossing cultural boundaries. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——243 Principled leaders can boost the moral judgment of a group by encouraging members to adopt more sophisticated ethical schemas. 3 Models of cognitive development provide important insights into the process of ethical decision making. First, contextual variables play an important role in shaping ethical behavior. Most people look to others as well as to rules and regulations when making ethical determinations. They are more likely to m ake wise moral judgments if coworkers and supervisors encourage and model ethical behavior. As leaders, we need to build ethical environments. (We’ll take a closer look at the formation of ethical groups and organizations in Chapters 8 and 9. ) Second, education fosters moral reasoning.Pursuing a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree can promote your moral development. As part of your education, focus as much attention as you can on ethics (i. e. , take ethics courses, discuss ethical issues in groups and classes, reflect on the ethical challenges you experience in internships). Third, a broader perspective is better. Consider the needs and viewpoints of others outside your immediate group or organization; determine what is good for the local area, the larger society, and the global community. Fourth, moral principles produce superior solutions.The best ethical thinkers base their choices on widely accepted ethical guidelines. Do the same by drawing on import ant ethical approaches such as utilitarianism, the categorical imperative, altruism, communitarianism, and justice-as-fairness theory. LEADERSHIP ETHICS AT THE MOVIES MICHAEL CLAYTON Key Cast Members: George Clooney, Tilda Swinton, Tom Wilkinson, Sydney Pollack Synopsis: George Clooney stars as Michael Clayton, the â€Å"fixer† for a large New York City firm. Clayton takes care of any messes involving clients, like hit-andrun accidents and shoplifting charges.When the firm’s top litigator (played by Wilkinson) begins to work for the other side in a $3 billion lawsuit, Clayton must get him back on his medications and under control. Karen Crowder (Swinton) is chief counsel for the conglomerate being sued for manufacturing a toxic chemical. She decides to permanently silence both the rogue lawyer and Clayton. The fixer, whose life and reputation have been tarnished by a series of poor ethical and business choices, must now decide how to respond to illegal wiretapping and murder. Swinton won a Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her (Continued) 44——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies (Continued) performance as the ambitious attorney who decides that corporate survival takes precedence over human life. Rating: R for language, including sexual dialogue Themes: moral reasoning, the dark side of leadership, corruption, greed, character, deception Discussion Starters 1. What factors motivated Clayton to become a â€Å"fixer† and the conglomerate’s chief counsel to protect her company at any cost? 2. Was it unethical for the law firm’s top litigator to begin to work for the plaintiffs? Why or why not? 3.What accounts for Clayton’s shift to a higher level of moral reasoning? Component 3: Moral Focus (Motivation) After concluding what course of action is best, decision makers must be focused (motivated to follow through) on their choices. Moral values often conflict with other significant values. For instance, a n accounting supervisor who wants to blow the whistle on illegal accounting practices at her firm must balance her desire to do the right thing against her desire to keep her job, provide income for her family, and maintain relationships with her fellow workers.She will report the accounting abuses to outside authorities only if moral considerations take precedence over these competing priorities. Psychologists report that self-interest and hypocrisy undermine moral motivation. 14 Sometimes individuals genuinely want to do the right thing, but their integrity is â€Å"overpowered† when they discover that they will have to pay a personal cost for acting in an ethical manner. Others never intend to follow an ethical course of action but engage in moral hypocrisy instead. These decision makers â€Å"want to appear moral while, if possible, avoiding the cost of actually being moral. 15 In experimental settings, they say that assignments should be distributed fairly but then assi gn themselves the most desirable tasks while giving less desirable chores to others. Both self-interest and hypocrisy encourage leaders to set their moral principles aside. For example, corporate executives may declare that lower-level employees deserve higher wages. However, whether they really want to help workers or CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——245 just want to appear as if they do, these executives are not likely to pay employees more if it means that they will earn less as a result.Rewards play an important role in ethical follow-through. People are more likely to give ethical values top priority when rewarded through raises, promotions, public recognition, and other means for doing so. Conversely, moral motivation drops when the reward system reinforces unethical behavior. 16 Unfortunately, misplaced rewards are all too common, as in the case of electronics retailers who reward employees for selling expensive extended warranties on new product s. Such warranties are generally a bad deal for consumers. Emotions also play a part in moral motivation. 7 As noted earlier, sympathy, disgust, guilt, and other moral emotions prompt us to take action. We can use their motivational force to help us punish wrongdoers, address injustice, provide assistance, and so on. Other researchers report that positive emotions such as joy and happiness make people more optimistic and more likely to live out their moral choices and to help others. Depression, on the other hand, lowers motivation, and jealousy, rage, and envy contribute to lying, revenge, stealing, and other antisocial behaviors.To increase your moral motivation and the moral motivation of followers, seek out and create ethically rewarding environments. Make sure the reward system of an organization supports ethical behavior before joining it as an employee or a volunteer. Try to reduce the costs of behaving morally by instituting policies and procedures that make it easier to rep ort unethical behavior, combat discrimination, and so on. Work to align rewards with desired behavior in your current organization. Be concerned about how goals are reached. If all else fails, reward yourself.Take pride in following through on your choices and on living up to your self-image as a person of integrity. Tap into moral emotions while making a conscious effort to control negative feelings and to put yourself in a positive frame of mind. Component 4: Moral Character Executing the plan of action takes character. Moral agents have to overcome opposition, resist distractions, cope with fatigue, and develop tactics and strategies for reaching their goals. This helps explain why there is only a moderate correlation between moral judgment and moral behavior.Many times deciding does not lead to doing. The positive character traits described in Chapter 3 contribute to ethical follow-through. Courage helps leaders implement their plans despite the risks and costs of doing so while prudence helps them choose the best course of 246——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies action. Integrity encourages leaders to be true to themselves and their choices. Humility forces leaders to address limitations that might prevent them from taking action. Reverence promotes self-sacrifice. Optimism equips leaders to persist in the face of obstacles and difficulties.Compassion and justice focus the attention of leaders on the needs of others rather than on personal priorities. In addition to virtues, other personal characteristics contribute to moral action. 18 Those with a strong will, as well as confidence in themselves and their abilities, are more likely to persist. The same is true for those with an internal locus of control. Internally oriented people (internals) believe that they have control over their lives and can determine what happens to them. Externally oriented people (externals) believe that life events are beyond their control and are the prod uct of fate or luck instead.Because they have personal responsibility for their actions, internals are more motivated to do what is right. Externals are more susceptible to situational pressures and therefore less likely to persist in ethical tasks. Successful implementation also requires competence. For instance, modifying the organizational reward system may entail researching, organizing, arguing, networking, and relationship-building skills. These skills are put to maximum use when actors have an in-depth understanding of the organizational context: important policies, the group’s history and culture, informal leaders, and so on.Following the character-building guidelines presented in Chapter 3 will go a long way to helping you build the virtues you need to put your moral choices into action. You may also want to look at your past performance to see why you succeeded or failed. Believe that you can have an impact. Otherwise, you are probably not going to carry through whe n obstacles surface. Develop your skills so that you can better put your moral choice into action and master the context in which you operate. Decision-Making Formats Decision-making guidelines or formats can help us make better ethical choices.Taking a systematic approach encourages teams and individuals to carefully define the problem, gather information, apply ethical standards and values, identify and evaluate alternative courses of action, and follow through on their choices. They’re also better equipped to defend their decisions. Four ethical decision-making formats are described in the pages to come. All four approaches are useful. You may want to use just one or a combination of all of them. The particular format you use is not as important as using a systematic approach to moral reasoning. You can practice these guidelines by applying them to Case Study 7. and the scenarios described at the end of the chapter. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior—â €”247 You will probably find it difficult at first to follow a format. That’s because using a format takes a significant amount of effort, and we are used to making rapid judgments mentally when faced with ethical choices. 19 Without being conscious of the fact, we quickly invoke decision-making rules we have learned though experience, such as â€Å"it is always good to obey authority† or â€Å"always be as fair as possible. † Or we intuitively come to a rapid decision based on our emotions and cultural background.Often these quick responses are good ones. But not always. There may be times, for instance, when authority needs to be disobeyed or fairness must be set aside for compassion. Our intuitions are wrong when they are based on mistaken cultural beliefs. For example, many Americans used to immediately condemn interracial couples. As time passed, society recognized that this reaction was biased, unfounded, and unjust. I suggest that, when confronted wit h ethical dilemmas like those in Case Study 7. 1, you write down your initial reaction before using a format. Later compare your final decision to your immediate response.Your ultimate conclusion after following a series of steps may be the same as your first judgment. Or you might find that you come to a significantly different decision. In any case, you should be comfortable with your solution because your deliberations were informed both by your preconscious experiences, emotions, and intuitions as well as by your conscious reasoning. 20 CASE STUDY 7. 1 PARKING LOT SHOOTING Over the past year several employees of a national fast-food chain have been shot or injured when intervening in fights or crimes occurring in the restaurant’s parking lots.As a result, corporate headquarters drafted a new policy that forbids workers from leaving the building in such emergencies, instructing them instead to dial 911. Those who violate the policy will immediately be fired. Imagine that y ou are day-shift manager at one of the company’s locations where a shooting has occurred. You call 911 but notice that the victim, who is lying right outside the door, is bleeding profusely. No one else is stepping up to help the injured man. You have first-aid training and believe you can stabilize his condition before the ambulance arrives.The shooter has apparently fled the scene. Would you disobey company policy and help the shooting victim? 248——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Kidder’s Ethical Checkpoints Ethicist Rushworth Kidder suggests that nine steps or checkpoints can help bring order to otherwise confusing ethical issues. 21 1. Recognize that there is a problem. This step is critically important because it forces us to acknowledge that there is an issue that deserves our attention and helps us separate moral questions from disagreements about manners and social conventions.For example, being late for a party may be bad manners and v iolate cultural expectations. However, this act does not translate into a moral problem involving right or wrong. On the other hand, deciding whether to accept a kickback from a supplier is an ethical dilemma. 2. Determine the actor. Once we’ve determined that there is an ethical issue, we then need to decide who is responsible for addressing the problem. I may be concerned that the owner of a local business treats his employees poorly. Nonetheless, unless I work for the company or buy its products, there is little I can do to address this situation. . Gather the relevant facts. Adequate, accurate, and current information is important for making effective decisions of all kinds, including ethical ones. Details do make a difference. In deciding whether it is just to suspend a student for fighting, for instance, a school principal will want to hear from teachers, classmates, and the offender to determine the seriousness of the offense, the student’s reason for fighting, and the outcome of the altercation. The administrator will probably be more lenient if this is the offender’s first offense and he was defending himself. 4.Test for right-versus-wrong issues. A choice is generally a poor one if it gives you a negative, gut-level reaction (the stench test), would make you uncomfortable if it appeared on the front page of tomorrow’s newspaper (the frontpage test), or would violate the moral code of someone that you care a lot about (the Mom test). If your decision violates any of these criteria, you had better reconsider. 5. Test for right-versus-right values. Many ethical dilemmas pit two core values against each other. Determine whether two good or right values are in conflict with one another in this situation.Right-versus-right value clashes include the following: ? Truth telling versus loyalty to others and institutions. Telling the truth may threaten our allegiance to another person or to an organization, such as when leaders and f ollowers are faced with the decision of whether to blow the whistle on organizational misbehavior (see Chapter 5). Kidder believes that truth versus loyalty is the most common type of conflict involving two deeply held values. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——249 ? Personal needs versus the needs of the community.Our desire to serve our immediate group or ourselves can run counter to the needs of the larger group or community. ? Short-term benefits versus long-term negative consequences. Sometimes satisfying the immediate needs of the group (giving a hefty pay raise to employees, for example) can lead to long-term negative consequences (endangering the future of the business). ? Justice versus mercy. Being fair and even-handed may conflict with our desire to show love and compassion. 6. Apply the ethical standards and perspectives. Apply the ethical principle that is most relevant and useful to this specific issue.Is it communitarianism? Utilitarianism? Kant’s categorical imperative? A combination of perspectives? 7. Look for a third way. Sometimes seemingly irreconcilable values can be resolved through compromise or the development of a creative solution. Negotiators often seek a third way to bring competing factions together. Such was the case in the deliberations that produced the Camp David peace accord. Egypt demanded that Israel return land on the West Bank seized in the 1967 War. Israel resisted because it wanted a buffer zone to protect its security.The dispute was settled when Egypt pledged that it would not attack Israel again. Assured of safety, the Israelis agreed to return the territory to Egypt. 22 8. Make the decision. At some point we need to step up and make the decision. This seems a given (after all, the point of the whole process is to reach a conclusion). However, we may be mentally exhausted from wrestling with the problem, get caught up in the act of analysis, or lack the necessary courage to come to a decision. In Kidder’s words, At this point in the process, there’s little to do but decide.That requires moral courage—an attribute essential to leadership and one that, along with reason, distinguishes humanity most sharply from the animal world. Little wonder, then, that the exercise of ethical decision-making is often seen as the highest fulfillment of the human condition. 23 9. Revisit and reflect on the decision. Learn from your choices. Once you’ve moved on to other issues, stop and reflect. What lessons emerged from this case that you can apply to future decisions? What ethical issues did it raise? Balance Sheet Advantages (Pros) †¢ Is thorough †¢ Considers problem ownership 50——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies †¢ Emphasizes the importance of getting the facts straight †¢ Recognizes that dilemmas can involve right–right as well as right–wrong choices †¢ Encourages the search for creat ive solutions †¢ Sees ethical decision making as a learning process Weaknesses (Cons) †¢ It is not easy to determine who has the responsibility for solving a problem †¢ The facts are not always available, or there may not be enough time to gather them †¢ Decisions don’t always lead to action There is a lot to be said for Kidder’s approach to ethical decision making.For one thing, he seems to cover all the bases, beginning with defining the issue all the way through to learning from the situation after the dust has settled. He acknowledges that there are some problems that we can’t do much about and that we need to pay particular attention to gathering as much information as possible. The ethicist recognizes that some decisions involve deciding between two â€Å"goods† and leaves the door open for creative solutions. Making a choice can be an act of courage, as Kidder points out, and we can apply lessons learned in one dilemma to future problems.On the flip side, some of the strengths of Kidder’s model can also be seen as weaknesses. As we’ll see in Chapter 10, determining responsibility or ownership of a problem is getting harder in an increasingly interdependent world. Who is responsible for poor labor conditions in third-world countries, for instance? The manufacturer? The subcontractor? The store that sells the products made in sweatshops? Those who buy the items? Kidder also seems to assume that leaders will have the time to gather necessary information. Unfortunately, in situations like that described in Case Study 7. 1, time is in short supply.Finally, the model seems to equate deciding with doing. As we saw in our earlier discussion of moral action, we can decide on a course of action but not follow through. Kidder is right to say that making ethical choices takes courage. However, it takes even more courage to put the choice into effect. The SAD Formula Media ethicist Louis Alvin Day of Loui siana State University developed the SAD formula in order to build important elements of critical thinking into moral reasoning. Critical thinking is a rational approach to decision making CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——251 that emphasizes careful analysis and evaluation.It begins with an understanding of the subject to be evaluated; moves to identifying the issues, information, and assumptions surrounding the problem; and then concludes with evaluating alternatives and reaching a conclusion. 24 Each stage of the SAD formula—situation definition, analysis of the situation, decision—addresses a component of critical thinking. (See Box 7. 1. ) To demonstrate this model, I’ll use a conflict involving mandatory vaccinations of health care workers. 25 Situation Definition Health care professionals are at risk for contracting infectious diseases and spreading them to their patients.For that reason, the U. S. government determined that h ealth care workers should be one of the first groups to receive flu vaccines such as the one designed to combat the H1N1 (swine flu) virus. Vaccination can reduce the likelihood of catching the flu by 70%–80% and is one of the best ways to prevent a pandemic. However, fewer than half of U. S. health workers get flu shots every year (rates are also low in Great Britain and Hong Kong). Medical personnel who fail to be vaccinated often do so for the same reasons as other Americans.They don’t like shots, it is not convenient to get them, they claim they seldom get sick, or they believe the vaccine makes them ill (though scientists deny that this happens). Health officials have tried a variety of strategies to increase the percentage of doctors and nurses receiving vaccinations, including promotional campaigns and prize drawings. However, these voluntary efforts have fallen short. Concerned about low participation rates, particularly in light of the danger posed by the swin e flu, Hospital Corporation of America, MedStar Health (Maryland), Virginia Mason (Seattle, WA), BJC HealthCare (St.Louis, MO), and the state of New York began mandatory vaccination programs. A number of clinics and doctor’s offices followed suit. Employees were told they would lose their jobs if they did not get the vaccine. Exceptions were made for those likely to have an allergic reaction (eggs are used in the production of the shots) or those with religious objections. Some health care workers and their unions immediately protested the stricter vaccination policies, labeling such programs as intrusive violations of individual rights. Day says that the ethical question to be addressed should be as narrow as possible.In our example, we will seek to answer the following query: Are mandatory flu-vaccination policies for health care workers ethically justified? 252——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies BOX 7. 1 THE MORAL REASONING PROCESS Situation Definiti on Description of facts Identification of principles and values Statement of ethical issue or question Analysis Weighing of competing principles and values Consideration of external factors Examination of duties to various parties Discussion of applicable ethical theories Decision Rendering of moral agent’s decision Defense of that decision based on moral theory SOURCE: From Day.Ethics in Media Communications: Cases and Controversies, 5E. Copyright  © 2006 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission www. cengage. com/permissions. Analysis Evaluation of Values and Principles. Competing principles and values are clearly present in this situation. On the one side, medical administrators and public health officials put a high value on the responsibility of medical personnel to patients and argue that mandatory vaccinations will save lives, particularly those of vulnerable populations like the sick, those with compromised immune systems, pregnant women, the very young, and the elderly.In requiring mandatory vaccinations in New York, the state’s health commissioner asserted: â€Å"The rationale begins with health-care ethics, which is: The patient’s well-being comes ahead of the personal preferences of health-care workers. †26 (The commissioner later rescinded his edict when there was a shortage of the vaccine. ) The chief medical officer of MedStar Health said the decision to require vaccinations â€Å"is all about patient safety. † On the other side of the debate are individuals, employee unions, and groups CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——253 who put their priority on individual rights.They believe that making flu shots a condition of employment takes away the right to make personal medical decisions, and they have concerns about the safety of the vaccines despite the assurances of medical experts. Opponents also worry that mandatory programs will spread from the health ca re sector into other areas of society. Said a representative of an organization wanting to limit government expansion, â€Å"You start with health-care workers but then expand that umbrella to make it mandatory for everybody. It’s all part of an encroachment on our liberties. †27 External Factors.Some influenza strains, like H1N1, pose greater risks than other strains and spread more rapidly, making vaccinations even more important. Medical employees already have to be inoculated for other conditions like mumps, measles, and tuberculosis, and there haven’t been widespread protests about these requirements. In addition, medical personnel have to follow such mandatory safety procedures as washing their hands before surgery. Vaccinations appear to be a safety measure like hand washing. However, past inoculation programs have made some medical professionals skeptical about current efforts.Earlier vaccines did make recipients sore and could cause mild flu-like sympto ms. The H1N1 vaccine seemed to be rushed into production, raising concerns that recipients were serving as â€Å"guinea pigs. † Nurses, doctors, and home health givers, like other Americans, are increasingly worried about substances they put in their bodies. Moral Duties or Loyalties. Professor Day borrows from theologian Ralph Potter for this part of his model. Potter believes we need to take into account important duties or loyalties when making ethical choices. 8 In this case, the following duties have to be kept in mind: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Loyalty to self (individual conscience) Loyalty to patients Loyalty to vulnerable populations Loyalty to fellow employees Loyalty to others in the same profession Loyalty to the public Medical officials seem primarily concerned for patients, vulnerable populations, and the larger community. Low vaccination rates threaten patients and clients and help the virus spread. Health care workers who refuse flu shots also damage the credibility of the medical profession. Why should patients be vaccinated if their doctors and nurses don’t think it is safe 54——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies or necessary to do so? Vaccination objectors are more concerned for their individual rights and, in some cases, their personal safety. They seem to overlook their primary duty, which is to serve their patients. Yet not all appear to be acting out of selfish motives. Some resistors are concerned about setting a precedent that could reduce the rights of their fellow citizens in the years to come. Moral Theories. Each of the ethical perspectives outlined in Chapter 5 can be applied to this dilemma.From a utilitarian perspective, the benefit of protecting personal rights has to be weighed against the dangers of spreading the flu virus. However, the immediate benefits of slowing the virus also need to be weighed against the long-term costs—loss of individual rights and govern ment intrusion. Based on Kant’s categorical imperative, we could ask if we would want everyone to be vaccinated (probably) or if we would want everyone to refuse to be vaccinated (probably not). However, employees who resist the mandatory shots should carry through on their decision regardless of the consequences, such as losing their jobs.Rawls’s theory could be applied to say that required vaccinations are justified because they protect the least advantaged members of society. Communitarianism also seems to support the mandatory vaccination position. Medical leaders put their emphasis on responsibility to patients, vulnerable groups, and the public. Objectors seem to emphasize individual rights rather than duties. Advocates of mandatory vaccinations have a stronger altruistic focus because such efforts are designed to reduce sickness and suffering. Opponents may argue, however, that they are demonstrating concern by protecting the rights of others.Decision Decisions often emerge out of careful definition and analysis of the problem. It may be clear which course of action is best after external constraints, principles, duties, and moral theories are identified and evaluated. In our example, mandatory flu vaccination programs for health care workers appear to be morally justified. Such programs put the needs of others first and reduce suffering and death. They seem consistent with other requirements placed on health care workers and support the patient-focused mission of the medical profession.Health care employees should prevent sickness, not spread it. This option also seems to be best supported by moral theory. Nonetheless, opponents of mandatory vaccination programs are right to point out that we should be cautious about requiring health CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——255 treatments. Just because mandatory influenza vaccinations are justified for health care workers does not mean that we should require all citi zens to be vaccinated (that’s a different question for analysis) or force citizens into other medical treatments. Balance SheetAdvantages (Pros) †¢ Encourages orderly, systematic reasoning †¢ Incorporates situation definition, duties, and moral theories Disadvantages (Cons) †¢ Failure to reach consensus †¢ Limits creativity †¢ Ignores implementation The SAD formula does encourage careful reasoning by building in key elements of the critical thinking process. Following the formula keeps decision makers from reaching hasty decisions. Instead of jumping immediately to solutions, they must carefully identify elements of the situation, examine and evaluate ethical alternatives, and then reach a conclusion.Three elements of the SAD formula are particularly praiseworthy. First, the formula recognizes that the keys to solving a problem often lie in clearly identifying and describing it. Groups are far less likely to go astray when members clearly outline the question they are to answer. Second, Day’s formula highlights duties or loyalties. In the case of vaccinations, prioritizing loyalties is key to supporting or opposing mandatory vaccination programs. Third, the formula incorporates moral theories directly into the decisionmaking process. The strengths of the SAD model must be balanced against some troubling weaknesses.Day implies that a clear choice will emerge after the problem is defined and analyzed. Nevertheless, that may not always be the case. Even in our example, there is room for dispute. While it appears as if mandatory vaccinations are morally justified, those who put a high value on personal freedoms will likely remain unconvinced. They raise valid concerns about the long-term impact of such programs as well. Focusing on a narrowly defined question may exclude creative options and make it hard to apply principles from one decision to other settings. Finally, the formula leaves out the important implementation stage . 56——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Nash’s 12 Questions Ethics consultant Laura Nash offers 12 questions that can help businesses and other groups identify the responsibilities involved in making moral choices. 29 She argues that discussions based on these queries can be useful even if the group doesn’t reach a conclusion. Managers who answer the questions surface ethical concerns that might otherwise remain hidden, identify common moral problems, clarify gaps between stated values and performance, and explore a variety of alternatives. 1. Have you defined the problem accurately?The ethical decision-making process begins with assembling the facts. Determine how many employees will be affected by layoffs, how much the cleanup of toxic materials will cost, or how many people have been injured by faulty products. Finding out the facts can help defuse the emotionalism of some issues (perhaps the damage is not as great as first feared). 2. How wou ld you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence? Asking how others might feel forces self-examination. From a company’s point of view, expanding a local plant may make good sense by increasing production and efficiency.Government officials and neighbors might have an entirely different perspective. A larger plant means more workers clogging already overcrowded roads and contributing to urban sprawl. For example, considering the company’s point of view may impact the decision you reach in â€Å"Focus on Follower Ethics: Paying Back Microsoft† on page 258. 3. How did this situation occur in the first place? This question separates the symptoms from the disease. Lying, cheating customers, and strained labor relations are generally symptoms of deeper problems.Firing an employee for unethical behavior is a temporary solution. Probe to discover the underlying causes. For example, many dubious accounting practices are the result of pressure to pro duce high quarterly profits. 4. To whom and to what do you give your loyalties as a person or group and as a member of the organization? As we saw in Chapter 1, conflicts of loyalty are hard to sort through. However, wrestling with the problem of ultimate loyalty (Work group? Family? Self? Corporation? ) can clarify the values operating in an ethical dilemma. 5. What is your intention in making this decision? . How does this intention compare with the likely results? These questions probe both the group’s intentions and the likely products. Honorable motives CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——257 don’t guarantee positive results. Make sure that the outcomes reflect your motivations. 7. Whom could your decision or action injure? Too often groups consider possible injury only after being sued. Try, in advance, to determine harmful consequences. What will happen if customers ignore label warnings and spread your pesticide indiscriminately, for example?Will the guns you manufacture end up in the hands of urban gang members? Based on these determinations, you may decide to abandon your plans to make these items or revise the way they are marketed. 8. Can you engage the affected parties in a discussion of the problem before you make your decision? Talking to affected parties is one way to make sure that you understand how your actions will influence them. Few of us would want other people to decide what’s in our best interest. Yet we often push forward with projects that assume we know what’s in the best interests of others. 9.Are you confident that your position will be as valid over a long period of time as it seems now? Make sure that your choice will stand the test of time. What seem like compelling reasons for a decision may not seem so important months or years later. Consider the U. S. decision to invade Iraq, for instance. American intelligence experts and political leaders tied Saddam Hussein to terror ist groups and claimed that he was hiding weapons of mass destruction. After the invasion, no solid links between Iraqis and international terrorists or weapons of mass destruction were discovered.Our decision to wage this war doesn’t appear as justified now as it did in the months leading up to the conflict. 10. Could you disclose without qualm your decision or action to your boss, your CEO, the board of directors, your family, or society as a whole? No ethical decision is too trivial to escape the disclosure test. If you or your group would not want to disclose this action, then you’d better reevaluate your choice. 11. What is the symbolic potential of your action if understood? Misunderstood? What you intend may not be what the public perceives (see Questions 5 and 6).If your company is a notorious polluter, contributions to local arts groups may be seen as an attempt to divert attention from your firm’s poor environmental record, not as a generous civic gest ure. 12. Under what conditions would you allow exceptions to your stand? Moral consistency is critical, but is there any basis for making an exception? Dorm rules might require that visiting hours end at midnight on weekdays. Yet, as a resident assistant, is there any time when you would be willing to overlook violations? During finals week? On the evening before classes start?When dorm residents and visitors are working on class projects? 258——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Balance Sheet Advantages (Pros) †¢ Highlights the importance of gathering facts †¢ Encourages perspective taking †¢ Forecasts results and consequences over time Disadvantages (Cons) †¢ Is extremely time consuming †¢ May not always reach a conclusion †¢ Ignores implementation Like the ethical checkpoints, the 12 questions highlight the importance of problem identification and information gathering. They go a step further, however, by encouraging us to engage in perspective taking.We need to see the problem from the other party’s point of view, consider the possible injury we might cause, invite others to give us feedback, and consider how our actions will be perceived. We also need to envision results and take a longterm perspective, imagining how our decisions will stand the test of time. Stepping back can keep us from making choices we might regret later. For example, the decision to test nuclear weapons on U. S. soil without warning citizens may have seemed justified to officials waging the Cold War. However, now even the federal government admits that these tests were immoral. NW E FOCUS ON FOLLOWER ETHICS PAYING BACK MICROSOFT? S Software giant Microsoft made an embarrassing error when it engaged in the first widespread layoffs in the firm’s history. Company officials overpaid an average of $4,000–$5,000 to 25 out of the first 1,400 workers it furloughed. After discovering the error, the firm sent a letter ask ing for repayment from the 25 laid-off workers, requesting a check or money order and apologizing for the inconvenience. Contents of the letter soon appeared on the Internet and in the national media. Microsoft officials then backed off their attempts to get the money back.According to a company spokesperson, â€Å"This was a mistake on our part. We should have handled this situation in a more thoughtful manner. We are reaching out to those impacted to relay that we will not seek any payment from CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——259 those individuals. †1 While Microsoft decided to drop the matter because of negative publicity, the fact remains that some employees received more than they were promised. Except for a clerical error, the company did nothing wrong and has a legal right to ask for restitution.One outplacement expert noted that just because Microsoft is a large company doesn’t mean it should have to automatically pay the cost for this mistake. â€Å"What if they’d put an extra three zeros on it? † he wondered. â€Å"Of course they’d expect to get it back. †2 If you were one of the laid-off workers overpaid by Microsoft, would you give the money back? Why or why not? Would your response be different if the amount of the overpayment was much bigger and the company much smaller? Notes 1. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. (2009, February 23). TECHWEB. 2. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. Sources Chan, S. P. 2009, May 6). Microsoft may not be done cutting jobs. The Seattle Times, p. A1. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. (2009, February 23). TECHWEB. I suspect that some groups will be frustrated by the amount of time it takes to answer the 12 questions. Not only is the model detailed, but discussing the problem with affected parties could take a series of meetings over a period of weeks and months. Complex issues such as determining who should clean up riv er pollution involve a variety of constituencies with very different agendas (government agencies, company representatives, citizens’ groups, conservation clubs).Some decision makers may also be put off by the model’s ambiguity. Nash admits that experts may define problems differently, that there may be exceptions to the decision, and that groups may use the procedure and never reach a conclusion. Finally, none of the questions use the ethical standards we identified in Chapter 5 or address the problem of implementing the choice once it is made. The Case Study Method The case study method is widely used for making medical diagnoses. At many hospitals, groups made up of doctors, nurses, and other staff members 260——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies eet regularly to talk about particularly troublesome cases. They may be unable to determine the exact nature of the illness or how to best treat a patient. Many of these deliberations involve ethical is sues such as whether to keep a terminally ill person on life support or how to respond to patients who demand unnecessary tests and procedures. The group solicits a variety of viewpoints and gathers as much information as possible. Members engage in analogical reasoning, comparing the specifics of a particular case with similar cases by describing the patient, her illness, and relationships with her family.Instead of focusing on how universal principles and standards can be applied in this situation, hospital personnel are more concerned with the details of the case itself. Participants balance competing perspectives and values, reach tentative conclusions, and look for similarities between the current case and earlier ones. Medical ethicist and communication scholar David H. Smith argues that the case-based approach is a powerful technique because it is based on narrative or story. 30 When decision makers describe cases, they are telling stories.These narratives say as much about t he storyteller as they do about the reality of the case. â€Å"Facts† are not objective truth but rather are reflections of what the narrator thinks is true and important. Stories knit these perceptions into a coherent whole. When discussing the fate of patients, it is not enough to know medical data. Hospital personnel need to learn about the patient’s history, the costs and benefits of various treatment options, and other factors such as the wishes of relatives and legal issu

Sunday, November 10, 2019

Key Performance Indicators

Key Performance Indicators Key Performance Indicators are a tool to measure performance. This may be the performance of an organisation or an individual. In the case of an individual’s performance, KPI’s consist of, â€Å"a list of characteristics associated with effective or superior performance in a particular job role† (smallPRINT Australia Pty Ltd, 2010, 20). KPI’s clearly specify to employees what they are required to accomplish and how success will be measured. KPI’s will vary according to the specific roles and responsibilities of a position and the goals and objectives of an organisation.They are generally long-term with few changes made over an extended period of time (Reh, 2013). When writing KPI’s a range of key factors or competences considered essential to job performance should be taken into account. They should clearly explain what is to be done and how it will be quantifiably measured. In this way, an employee has something sp ecific to aim for and is able to track progress and monitor performance (smallPRINT Australia Pty Ltd, 2010). KPI’s should be: S – specific and conciseM – measureable A – ambitious (achievable yet challenging) R – related to overall department and enterprise goals T – time framed T – trackable or easily monitored (Cole, 2010) KPI’s enable individuals to determine how well they are performing and identify areas in need of improvement. This fosters individual accountability for performance and results. Overall, use of KPI’s ensures alignment between employees’ work and the goals and objectives of an organisation (Performance Management and KPIs, 2013). Key Performance Indicators Key Performance Indicators Key Performance Indicators are a tool to measure performance. This may be the performance of an organisation or an individual. In the case of an individual’s performance, KPI’s consist of, â€Å"a list of characteristics associated with effective or superior performance in a particular job role† (smallPRINT Australia Pty Ltd, 2010, 20). KPI’s clearly specify to employees what they are required to accomplish and how success will be measured. KPI’s will vary according to the specific roles and responsibilities of a position and the goals and objectives of an organisation.They are generally long-term with few changes made over an extended period of time (Reh, 2013). When writing KPI’s a range of key factors or competences considered essential to job performance should be taken into account. They should clearly explain what is to be done and how it will be quantifiably measured. In this way, an employee has something sp ecific to aim for and is able to track progress and monitor performance (smallPRINT Australia Pty Ltd, 2010). KPI’s should be: S – specific and conciseM – measureable A – ambitious (achievable yet challenging) R – related to overall department and enterprise goals T – time framed T – trackable or easily monitored (Cole, 2010) KPI’s enable individuals to determine how well they are performing and identify areas in need of improvement. This fosters individual accountability for performance and results. Overall, use of KPI’s ensures alignment between employees’ work and the goals and objectives of an organisation (Performance Management and KPIs, 2013). Key Performance Indicators Key Performance Indicators Key Performance Indicators are a tool to measure performance. This may be the performance of an organisation or an individual. In the case of an individual’s performance, KPI’s consist of, â€Å"a list of characteristics associated with effective or superior performance in a particular job role† (smallPRINT Australia Pty Ltd, 2010, 20). KPI’s clearly specify to employees what they are required to accomplish and how success will be measured. KPI’s will vary according to the specific roles and responsibilities of a position and the goals and objectives of an organisation.They are generally long-term with few changes made over an extended period of time (Reh, 2013). When writing KPI’s a range of key factors or competences considered essential to job performance should be taken into account. They should clearly explain what is to be done and how it will be quantifiably measured. In this way, an employee has something sp ecific to aim for and is able to track progress and monitor performance (smallPRINT Australia Pty Ltd, 2010). KPI’s should be: S – specific and conciseM – measureable A – ambitious (achievable yet challenging) R – related to overall department and enterprise goals T – time framed T – trackable or easily monitored (Cole, 2010) KPI’s enable individuals to determine how well they are performing and identify areas in need of improvement. This fosters individual accountability for performance and results. Overall, use of KPI’s ensures alignment between employees’ work and the goals and objectives of an organisation (Performance Management and KPIs, 2013).

Friday, November 8, 2019

Finance Example

Finance Example Finance – Essay Example CASE STUDY: SHELL’S ATTEMPT TO TAKEOVER WOODSIDE The dream takeover on Woodside Petroleum by Shellin 2001 was not to be. The Australian government, under the Foreign Acquisition and Takeovers Act rejected the bid. The person primarily responsible for this was Mr. Peter Costello, the federal treasurer at that time. In his speech for giving reasons why the Shell takeover bid was rejected, Mr. Costello said he believed that the takeover was not in the national interest of the Australians. . PART (A) Reasons why Mr. Costello rejected Shell to take over Woodside, 1. There was strive fear among Australians that their job security would be threatened if Shell was to take over. In case Shell took over, the Shell owners might have tried to improve the efficiency of Woodside operations in line with the parent company’s criteria. This would have included bringing in machinery and employees whom they believed would deliver what was required. The complication to this is that the machinery brought in might replace the human input to perform tasks that would lead to massive layoff of workers. Bringing in their own specialists would have also caused unemployment to specialists from Australia. This would be devastating to the government considering the fact that in 2001 the unemployment rate in Australia was at about 6% high. 2. The Woodside petroleum company is Australia’s major explorer and production of petroleum and gas. This means that most, if not all, areas that have these fuel extracts are exploited by Woodside and her joint partners. If Shell were successful in its bid, this would be catastrophic to Australia in that its resources would be under exploited. Mr. Costello believed that, Shell would be incapable of fully exploiting fuel in Australia as it would be too busy giving priority to its operation in Russia’s Sakhalin Island, which had promising results for Shell hence under developing the operations that Woodside was involved in especially the North West Shelf gas field, which was Australia’s largest developed energy resource at that time. 3. â€Å"National interest that it be developed and marketed in preference to competing products from anywhere in the world† (Mr. Peter Costello- Reserve treasurer, 2001). Here Mr. Costello was talking about the North West Shelf gas field. Analysts believed that if this part was effectively exploited, the liquid gas from here had potential of becoming the country’s largest export. Most of Australia’s gas and petroleum resources are based in the western region, hence, it was very important for the North West Shelf to be maximized; this would provide the country with income and a favourable balance of payment. This meant all measures had to be taken to ensure the potential of the country’s resources were fully utilized. The North West Shelf has estimated natural gas resources of more than 3168 Gm3 (130 Tcf) PART B: Reasons why Shell wanted to acquire Woodside. 1. In the year 2001, Shell already had 34% share claim to Woodside petroleum. Through the takeover bid, Shell expected to increase its share in Woodside to 56% hence being the majority shareholder. This would work in the favour of Shell in that it would be given the chance to appoint more directors at the Woodside Company. A higher number of directors in the board would assure the decision makers at Shell that most of their decisions would be passed with a high number of votes by the directors they appoint to the board. 2. The idea of a takeover bid by Shell would be a kind of expansion plan. Though Shell has continually denied it, taking over Woodside would be like opening an office branch for Shell in Australia. This would ensure that Shell has a deeper grip on the Asia-pacific region in the petroleum and gas industry. 3. Shell’s hostile takeover of Woodside would have guaranteed Shell more gas fields, particularly in North West shelf of Australia. This would have increased the production and output that essentially will be transferred to increased revenue and profits for the firm, hence, putting Shell ahead of companies it competes against in the petroleum and gas exploration and production industry like, British petroleum and Exxon. APPENDICES APPENDIX 1 REFERENCES New York Times â€Å"Australia Rejects a Shell Takeover bid† nytimes.com/2001/04/24/business/australia-rejects-a-shell-takeover-bid.html?src=pm Foreign investment review board â€Å"Foreign Investment Proposal  - Shell Australia Investments Limited’s Acquisition of Woodside Petroleum Limited† treasurer.gov.au/tsr/content/pressreleases/2001/025.asp Monash University, Kalfadellis, Judy Gray & Susan Freeman "The National Interest and the Screening of Foreign Direct Investment in Australia" Monash: Monash University,